Tonga

• Traditional Culture (1810)
  • Isolation
    Isolation

    Question	Response	Source
    Pre-Austronesian population	Absent: No evidence of human occupation prior to Austronesian settlement	Bellwood 1995: 109
    Christian influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Christian influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Christian societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Campbell 2001: 56-65
    Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Hindu or Buddhist societies at or prior to to the time focus in question.)	Cribb 2000: Map 2.21
    (Low) contact with other societies (SCCS v 787)	Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. (e.g. yearly or most years)	Ferdon 1987: 234-236
    Islamic influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Islamic influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Islamic societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Cribb 2000: Map 2.23
    Distance to closest landmass inhabited by a different culture (km)	286.2	Calculator 2014; Ferdon 1987: 'Kingdom of Tonga' (Map)
    Distance to nearest continent (km)	3229	Calculator 2014; Ferdon 1987: 'Kingdom of Tonga' (Map)

  • Physical Environment
    Location

    Question	Response	Source
    Longitude of culture’s location (°)	-175.2	2014; Burley 2007: 180
    Latitude of culture’s location (°)	-21.2	2014; Burley 2007: 180

    Geographical Range of Culture

    Question	Response	Source
    Number of islands inhabited by culture	Four or more	Ferdon 1987: "Kingdom of Tonga" (Map)

    Features of Island with Largest Culture Population

    Question	Response	Source
    Island type (island with largest culture population or largest island if unknown)	Tectonic (an oceanic island formed by tectonic uplift, e.g. Macquarie Island)	Campbell 2001: 17
    Maximum elevation (meters)	70	Campbell 2001: 17
    Island Size (km²)	260	Campbell 2001: 17

  • Social Environment
    Social Environment

    Question	Response	Source
    Estimate of culture population size at relevant time focus	30000	Burley 2007: 994
    Importance of Matrilateral descent (V.2)	Medium (Matrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, but is not the most important form of descent.)	Urbanowicz 1991: 337
    Importance of Patrilateral descent (V.2)	High (Patrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, and is more important than any other form of descent.)	Urbanowicz 1991: 337
    Polygamy (SCCS 861)	Limited polygyny (< 20% of married males)	Urbanowicz 1991: 338
    Marital residence (SCCS 69)	Patrilocal or virilocal - with husband's kin	Urbanowicz 1991: 338
    Kinship system (if applicable)	Hawaiian	Urbanowicz 1991: 338
    Estimated population of largest political community	10,000-99,999	Ferdon 1987: 25-36; Burley 2007: 994
    Political Authority	Supralocal (encompasses multiple local groups)	Ferdon 1987: 11-16, 25-50

    Conflict

    Question	Response	Source
    (No) conflict (social or political) within the local community (SCCS v 767)	Low (Conflict seldom occurs, and is almost never violent.)	Ferdon 1987: 1-50
    (No) internal warfare (between communities of the same society) (SCCS v 773)	Occasional, at least every generation	Ferdon 1987: 255-280
    (No) external warfare (with other societies) (SCCS v 774)	Occasional, at least every generation	Ferdon 1987: 255-280

  • Subsistence and Economy
    Subsistence and Economy

    Question	Response	Source
    Metalworking	Absent	Ferdon 1987: 109-118

    Land-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Animal husbandry as a source of food	Minor	Ferdon 1987: 215-218
    Land-based hunting performed by individuals	Minor	Ferdon 1987: 103-109, 178-184, 205-227
    Land-based gathering	Absent	Ferdon 1987: 205-227
    Land-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Minor	Ferdon 1987: 103-109, 178-184, 205-227
    Agriculture / Horticulture	Major (one of the most important sources of food)	Ferdon 1987: 215

    Water-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Water-based gathering	Minor	Ferdon 1987: 223-227
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Major	Ferdon 1987: 223-227
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by individuals	Medium	Ferdon 1987: 223-227

    Commercial Activity

    Question	Response	Source
    Trade / wage labour as a source of food	Medium	Ferdon 1987: 229-233

• Post Contact History (1810-2014)
  • Religious History
    Conversion

    Question	Response	Source
    Was a foreign religion adopted through a top-down (those high in the social hierarchy converted first, followed by the general population) or a bottom-up (the general population converted first, followed by those high in the social hierarchy) process?	Primarily a top-down process.	Besnier 2011: 206
    Use of force in conversion	Low (most communities adopted the new religion either voluntarily or due to pressure from other communities of the same culture)	Campbell 2001: 72-84; Besnier 2011: 205-207
    Adoption of a world religion	Present and predominant (At one time or another during the post-contact period, at least 75% of the indigenous population practiced a world religion.)	Besnier 2011: 205-207; Agency 2014
    Resident missionary involvement in conversion process	Present, and from non-Austronesian societies (Resident foreign missionaries, at least one of whom was from a non-Austronesian society, played an important role in the conversion process.)	Besnier 2011: 206

    Syncretic Movements

    Question	Response	Source
    Syncretic religious movements	Absent	Campbell 2001: 72-84; Besnier 2011: 206-230

  • Secular History
    Demographic and Social Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Replacement-level immigration	Absent (Replacement-level immigration did not occur – an immigrant culture was never present in the area, or was present but had a population size less than 10% of that of the indigenous culture.)	Besnier 2011: 47-54; Agency 2014
    Language shift	Medium (The indigenous language remained an important means of communication for the duration of the post-contact period, but at one time or another the indigenous population used a non-indigenous language to roughly the same extent.)	Besnier 2011: 11; Agency 2014
    Foreign education systems	High (At one time or another during the post-contact period over 75% of children received some at least a basic non-indigenous education.)	Campbell 2001: 102, 116; Besnier 2011: 39
    Foreign government systems	Present, and of high importance (At one time or another during the post-contact period the culture was subject to a foreign government system that controlled most important decisions.)	Besnier 2011: 29-32

    Economic Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Changes in means of subsistence	Medium (Principal and major means of subsistence have changed from their indigenous states (e.g. through gain or loss of major and / or principal means of subsistence), but at least one of the major or principal means of subsistance has persisted.)	Besnier 2011: 33, 55-63
    Exportation of goods to other cultures	Present and substantial (At one time or another during the post-contact period, exports were a primary focus of economic activity for over 10% of the population.)	Besnier 2011: 55-63

    Modern Infrastructure

    Question	Response	Source
    Vehicles and roads	Present and widely used (At one time or another during the post-contact period, motor vehicles were used by a substantial proportion of the population.)	Besnier 2011: 65, 68
    Air travel	Present and long-distance (At one time or another, most members of the culture had access to international air travel.)	Besnier 2011: 45-46
    Sea port	Present (At one time or another during the post-contact period most members of the culture had access to a sea port.)	Agency 2009: 174

    Loss of Autonomy

    Question	Response	Source
    Loss of autonomy during postcontact period	Medium (The culture maintained some political autonomy throughout the post-contact period, but on at least one occasion during the post-contact period the culture entered into a political relationship with a foreign power that involved some loss of autonomy.)	Besnier 2011: 31
    Nature of loss of autonomy – voluntary vs. forced	Partly voluntary (e.g. Autonomy was ceded voluntarily but under duress; some communities ceded their autonomy voluntarily but others were forced to do so by an foreign power.)	Campbell 2001: 133-134; Besnier 2011: 31