Southern Toraja

• Traditional Culture (1900)
  • Isolation
    Isolation

    Question	Response	Source
    Pre-Austronesian population	Present: Clear evidence of human occupation prior to Austronesian settlement	Bellwood 1995: 109
    Christian influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Christian influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Christian societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Nooy-Palm 1972: 135
    Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief	Evidence of influence (Evidence of Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief.)	Nooy-Palm 1979: 122
    (Low) contact with other societies (SCCS v 787)	Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. (e.g. yearly or most years)	Adams 1993: 281
    Islamic influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Islamic influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Islamic societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Nooy-Palm 1979: 135
    Distance to closest landmass inhabited by a different culture (km)	0	Nooy-Palm 1979: 6
    Distance to nearest continent (km)	1340	Calculator 2014; Nooy-Palm 1979: 4

  • Physical Environment
    Location

    Question	Response	Source
    Longitude of culture’s location (°)	119.8	2014; Nooy-Palm 1979: 2-3
    Latitude of culture’s location (°)	-3.1	2014; Nooy-Palm 1979: 2-3

    Geographical Range of Culture

    Question	Response	Source
    Number of islands inhabited by culture	One	Nooy-Palm 1979: 6

    Features of Island with Largest Culture Population

    Question	Response	Source
    Island type (island with largest culture population or largest island if unknown)	Continental island (an island situated on a continental shelf, e.g. Taiwan)	Charlton 2000: 607
    Maximum elevation (meters)	3455	Celebes 2018
    Island Size (km²)	188522	Celebes 2018

  • Social Environment
    Social Environment

    Question	Response	Source
    Estimate of culture population size at relevant time focus	120000	Bigalke 2005: 5
    Importance of Matrilateral descent (V.2)	Medium (Matrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, but is not the most important form of descent.)	Adams 1993: 282
    Importance of Patrilateral descent (V.2)	Medium (Patrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, but is not the most important form of descent.)	Adams 1993: 282
    Polygamy (SCCS 861)	Limited polygyny (< 20% of married males)	Nooy-Palm 1979: 30
    Marital residence (SCCS 69)	Matrilocal or uxorilocal - with wife's kin	Nooy-Palm 1986: 112
    Estimated population of largest political community	10,000-99,999	Bigalke 2005: 5, 15
    Political Authority	Supralocal (encompasses multiple local groups)	Bigalke 2005: 11-13; Nooy-Palm 1979: 58-92

    Conflict

    Question	Response	Source
    (No) conflict (social or political) within the local community (SCCS v 767)	Low (Conflict seldom occurs, and is almost never violent.)	Nooy-Palm 1979: 92-104
    (No) internal warfare (between communities of the same society) (SCCS v 773)	Frequent, occurring at least yearly	Bigalke 2005: 47; Nooy-Palm 1979: 12, 58-59
    (No) external warfare (with other societies) (SCCS v 774)	Occasional, at least every generation	Bigalke 2005: 3-48

  • Subsistence and Economy
    Subsistence and Economy

    Question	Response	Source
    Metalworking	Present	Nooy-Palm 1979: 11

    Land-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Animal husbandry as a source of food	Medium	Nooy-Palm 1972: 134; Nooy-Palm 1979: 11
    Land-based hunting performed by individuals	Minor	Nooy-Palm 1972: 134
    Land-based gathering	Minor	Nooy-Palm 1979: 11
    Land-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Minor	Nooy-Palm 1972: 134
    Agriculture / Horticulture	Principal (more important than any other source of food)	Nooy-Palm 1979: 11

    Water-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Water-based gathering	Medium	Nooy-Palm 1979
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Absent	Nooy-Palm 1972: 134
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by individuals	Medium	Nooy-Palm 1972: 134; Nooy-Palm 1979: 11

    Commercial Activity

    Question	Response	Source
    Trade / wage labour as a source of food	Absent	Nooy-Palm 1979: 1, 11

• Post Contact History (1900-2014)
  • Religious History
    Conversion

    Question	Response	Source
    Was a foreign religion adopted through a top-down (those high in the social hierarchy converted first, followed by the general population) or a bottom-up (the general population converted first, followed by those high in the social hierarchy) process?	Primarily a top-down process.	Bigalke 2005: 109-148, 222-264
    Use of force in conversion	Medium (e.g force was threatened or implied during the conversion process; some communities agreed to conversion but others were forced to convert)	Bigalke 2005: 109-148, 222-264
    Adoption of a world religion	Present and predominant (At one time or another during the post-contact period, at least 75% of the indigenous population practiced a world religion.)	Adams 1993: 283
    Resident missionary involvement in conversion process	Present, and from non-Austronesian societies (Resident foreign missionaries, at least one of whom was from a non-Austronesian society, played an important role in the conversion process.)	Nooy-Palm 1979: 8-9

    Syncretic Movements

    Question	Response	Source
    Syncretic religious movements	Absent	Bigalke 2005: 3-48, 76-148, 265-300

  • Secular History
    Demographic and Social Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Replacement-level immigration	Absent (Replacement-level immigration did not occur – an immigrant culture was never present in the area, or was present but had a population size less than 10% of that of the indigenous culture.)	Klenke 2013: 152
    Language shift	Medium (The indigenous language remained an important means of communication for the duration of the post-contact period, but at one time or another the indigenous population used a non-indigenous language to roughly the same extent.)	Eberhard et al. (eds.) 2020
    Foreign education systems	Medium (At one time or another during the post-contact period over 25% of indigenous children received at least a basic non-indigenous education, but this figure never exceeded 75%.)	Bigalke 2005: 152
    Foreign government systems	Present, and of high importance (At one time or another during the post-contact period the culture was subject to a foreign government system that controlled most important decisions.)	Bigalke 2005: 64-75

    Economic Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Changes in means of subsistence	Medium (Principal and major means of subsistence have changed from their indigenous states (e.g. through gain or loss of major and / or principal means of subsistence), but at least one of the major or principal means of subsistance has persisted.)	Klenke 2013: 154
    Exportation of goods to other cultures	Present and substantial (At one time or another during the post-contact period, exports were a primary focus of economic activity for over 10% of the population.)	Klenke 2013: 154; Adams 1993: 281

    Modern Infrastructure

    Question	Response	Source
    Vehicles and roads	Present and widely used (At one time or another during the post-contact period, motor vehicles were used by a substantial proportion of the population.)	Volkman 1985: 165-166
    Air travel	Present, local only (At no time during the post-contact period did most members of the culture have access to international air travel, but at one time or another most members of the culture had access to domestic air travel.)	Waterson 2009: xv-xvi
    Sea port	Present (At one time or another during the post-contact period most members of the culture had access to a sea port.)

    Loss of Autonomy

    Question	Response	Source
    Loss of autonomy during postcontact period	High (On at least one occasion during the post-contact period, the culture came under the political dominance of a foreign power, and this event resulted in considerable loss of autonomy.)	Bigalke 2005: 64-75
    Nature of loss of autonomy – voluntary vs. forced	Largely involuntary (autonomy was lost largely as a result of external force)	Bigalke 2005: 51-63