Pulotu - Culture Kalinga

Kalinga

The Kalinga are one of several large, historically non-Christian groups living in the mountains of northern Luzon. They are grouped together on the grounds of cultural and linguistic similarity rather than common identity - according to Lawless (1993), 'Kalinga' was originally an exonym meaning "enemy". The principal source on this culture (Dozier, 1966) focuses on the Northern Kalinga, who were less acculturated than the Southern Kalinga at this time.

Traditional Culture (1916)

Isolation

Question	Response	Source
Pre-Austronesian population	Present: Clear evidence of human occupation prior to Austronesian settlement	Bellwood 1995: 109
Christian influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Christian influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Christian societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Dozier 1966: 28-32, 44, 159-196
Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Hindu or Buddhist societies at or prior to to the time focus in question.)	Dozier 1966: 25-26
(Low) contact with other societies (SCCS v 787)	Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. (e.g. yearly or most years)	Dozier 1966: 31-32, 35
Islamic influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Islamic influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Islamic societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Dozier 1966: 26
Distance to closest landmass inhabited by a different culture (km)	0	Barton 1949: 8
Distance to nearest continent (km)	772.9	Calculator 2014; Barton 1949: 8

Physical Environment

Location

Question	Response	Source
Longitude of culture’s location (°)	121.3	2014; Barton 1949: 6
Latitude of culture’s location (°)	17.5	2014; Barton 1949: 6

Geographical Range of Culture

Question	Response	Source
Number of islands inhabited by culture	One	Barton 1949: 8

Features of Island with Largest Culture Population

Question	Response	Source
Island type (island with largest culture population or largest island if unknown)	Volcanic high island (an oceanic island of volcanic origin, e.g. Hawaii)	Yumul et al. 2009: 732-733
Maximum elevation (meters)	2930	Luzon 2019
Island Size (km²)	104688	Luzon 2019

Social Environment

Question	Response	Source
Estimate of culture population size at relevant time focus	20000	of the Philippine Islands 1921: 900
Importance of Matrilateral descent (V.2)	Medium (Matrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, but is not the most important form of descent.)	Lawless 1993: 122
Importance of Patrilateral descent (V.2)	Medium (Patrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, but is not the most important form of descent.)	Lawless 1993: 122
Polygamy (SCCS 861)	Limited polygyny (< 20% of married males)	Lawless 1993: 122
Marital residence (SCCS 69)	Matrilocal or uxorilocal - with wife's kin	Lawless 1993: 122
Kinship system (if applicable)	Eskimo	Lawless 1993: 122
Estimated population of largest political community	1,000-9,999	Lawless 1993: 122-123
Political Authority	Supralocal (encompasses multiple local groups)	Dozier 1966: 21-126, 197-237; Barton 1949: 32, 137-217

Conflict

Question	Response	Source
(No) conflict (social or political) within the local community (SCCS v 767)	High (Conflict is frequent and often violent, but is not a pervasive aspect of daily life.)	Dozier 1966: 59-60
(No) internal warfare (between communities of the same society) (SCCS v 773)	Common, at least every five years	Dozier 1966: 55-56
(No) external warfare (with other societies) (SCCS v 774)	Occasional, at least every generation	Dozier 1966: 21-52, 197-212

Subsistence and Economy

Question	Response	Source
Metalworking	Present	Dozier 1966: 128

Land-based means of subsistence

Question	Response	Source
Animal husbandry as a source of food	Medium	Dozier 1966: 127, 148-149
Land-based hunting performed by individuals	Medium	Dozier 1966: 127, 132-134
Land-based gathering	Medium	Dozier 1966: 127, 134
Land-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Minor	Dozier 1966: 127, 132-134
Agriculture / Horticulture	Principal (more important than any other source of food)	Dozier 1966: 3, 127, 135

Water-based means of subsistence

Question	Response	Source
Water-based gathering	Minor	Dozier 1966: 127, 134-135
Fishing and water-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Minor	Dozier 1966: 127, 134-135
Fishing and water-based hunting performed by individuals	Minor	Dozier 1966: 127, 134-135

Commercial Activity

Question	Response	Source
Trade / wage labour as a source of food	Minor	Dozier 1966: 26-28, 31, 127-132

Post Contact History (1916-2014)

Religious History

Conversion

Question	Response	Source
Was a foreign religion adopted through a top-down (those high in the social hierarchy converted first, followed by the general population) or a bottom-up (the general population converted first, followed by those high in the social hierarchy) process?	Primarily a top-down process.
Use of force in conversion	Low (most communities adopted the new religion either voluntarily or due to pressure from other communities of the same culture)
Adoption of a world religion	Present and predominant (At one time or another during the post-contact period, at least 75% of the indigenous population practiced a world religion.)	Dozier 1966: 44; Lawless 1993: 123
Resident missionary involvement in conversion process	Present, and from non-Austronesian societies (Resident foreign missionaries, at least one of whom was from a non-Austronesian society, played an important role in the conversion process.)

Syncretic Movements

Question	Response	Source
Syncretic religious movements	Absent

Secular History

Demographic and Social Changes

Question	Response	Source
Replacement-level immigration	Medium (Replacement-level immigration occurred. The immigrant culture had a population size more than 50% of that of the indigenous population at one time or another, but this figure never exceeded 100%.)
Foreign education systems	High (At one time or another during the post-contact period over 75% of children received some at least a basic non-indigenous education.)	Dozier 1966: 41-42
Foreign government systems	Present, and of high importance (At one time or another during the post-contact period the culture was subject to a foreign government system that controlled most important decisions.)	Onoe 2011: 89-90; Dozier 1966: 37-49

Economic Changes

Question	Response	Source
Changes in means of subsistence	Medium (Principal and major means of subsistence have changed from their indigenous states (e.g. through gain or loss of major and / or principal means of subsistence), but at least one of the major or principal means of subsistance has persisted.)	Onoe 2011: 89
Exportation of goods to other cultures	Present but minor (At one time or another exports were part of the local economy, but were never a primary focus of economic activity for more than 10% of the population .)	Onoe 2011: 89

Modern Infrastructure

Question	Response	Source
Vehicles and roads	Present and widely used (At one time or another during the post-contact period, motor vehicles were used by a substantial proportion of the population.)	Dozier 1966: 37, 46-47, 48
Sea port	Absent (At no time during the post-contact period did most members of the culture have access to a sea port.)	Dozier 1966: 2,5

Loss of Autonomy

Question	Response	Source
Loss of autonomy during postcontact period	High (On at least one occasion during the post-contact period, the culture came under the political dominance of a foreign power, and this event resulted in considerable loss of autonomy.)	Lawless 1993: 121
Nature of loss of autonomy – voluntary vs. forced	Partly voluntary (e.g. Autonomy was ceded voluntarily but under duress; some communities ceded their autonomy voluntarily but others were forced to do so by an foreign power.)	Dozier 1966: 38; Lawless 1993: 121

Coordinates WGS84

17°30'N, 121°18'E
17.50, 121.30

Also known as

Calinga; Kalingga; Kinalinga

Sources

2014: Google Maps
Barton 1949: The Kalingas: Their iInstitutions and custom law
Bellwood 1995: Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation
Blevins 2008: Some Comparative Notes on Proto-Oceanic *Mana: Inside and Outside the Austronesian Family
Blust 2007: Proto-Oceanic *Mana Revisited
Calculator 2014: http://www.daftlogic.com/projects-google-maps-distance-calculator.htm.
Dozier 1966: Mountain Arbiters: The Changing Life of a Philippine Hill People
Keesing 1984: Rethinking "mana"
Lawless 1993: Kalinga. In P. Hockings, Encyclopaedia of World Cultures Volume V: East and Southeast Asia (121-123)
Luzon 2019: Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved https://www.britannica.com/place/Luzon
Onoe 2011: 'Play' in Gopas Ritual in Kalinga Province, Philippines
Yumul et al. 2009: Philippines, geology
of the Philippine Islands 1921: Census of the Philippine Islands taken under the direction of the Philippine Legislature in the year 1918 (Vol. II: Population and Mortality)