Eastern Sumbanese

• Traditional Culture (1905)
  • Isolation
    Isolation

    Question	Response	Source
    Pre-Austronesian population	Present: Clear evidence of human occupation prior to Austronesian settlement	Bellwood 1995: 109
    Christian influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Christian influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Christian societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Forth 1981: 7
    Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief, but culture is likely to have had contact with Hindu or Buddhist societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Forth 1981: 7, 76-77
    (Low) contact with other societies (SCCS v 787)	Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. (e.g. yearly or most years)	Forth 1981: 7-8
    Islamic influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Islamic influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Islamic societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Forth 1981: 7-8
    Distance to closest landmass inhabited by a different culture (km)	0	Forth 1981: 3
    Distance to nearest continent (km)	694	Calculator 2014; Forth 1981: 4

  • Physical Environment
    Location

    Question	Response	Source
    Longitude of culture’s location (°)	120.3	2014; Forth 1981: 4
    Latitude of culture’s location (°)	-9.9	2014; Forth 1981: 4

    Geographical Range of Culture

    Question	Response	Source
    Number of islands inhabited by culture	One	Forth 1981: 3

    Features of Island with Largest Culture Population

    Question	Response	Source
    Island type (island with largest culture population or largest island if unknown)	Tectonic (an oceanic island formed by tectonic uplift, e.g. Macquarie Island)	Vel 2008: 24
    Maximum elevation (meters)	1220	2016
    Island Size (km²)	11153	2016; Forth 1981: 3

  • Social Environment
    Social Environment

    Question	Response	Source
    Estimate of culture population size at relevant time focus	60000	Forth 1981: 13; Gooszen 1999: 225
    Importance of Matrilateral descent (V.2)	Low (Matrilateral descent plays little or no role in determining social status and / or group membership.)	Lebar (eds.) 1972: 76
    Importance of Patrilateral descent (V.2)	High (Patrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, and is more important than any other form of descent.)	Lebar (eds.) 1972: 76
    Polygamy (SCCS 861)	Limited polygyny (< 20% of married males)	Lebar (eds.) 1972: 75-76
    Estimated population of largest political community	1,000-9,999	Lebar (eds.) 1972: 74-75; Forth 1981: 14
    Political Authority	Supralocal (encompasses multiple local groups)	Forth 1981: 45-46, 221-222, 225

    Conflict

    Question	Response	Source
    (No) conflict (social or political) within the local community (SCCS v 767)	Low (Conflict seldom occurs, and is almost never violent.)	Forth 1981: 214-281, 280
    (No) internal warfare (between communities of the same society) (SCCS v 773)	Frequent, occurring at least yearly	Lebar (eds.) 1972: 74-77; Forth 1981: 7
    (No) external warfare (with other societies) (SCCS v 774)	Frequent, occurring at least yearly	Forth 1981: 7-8

  • Subsistence and Economy
    Subsistence and Economy

    Question	Response	Source
    Metalworking	Present	Forth 1981: 16

    Land-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Animal husbandry as a source of food	Medium	Forth 1981: 15
    Land-based hunting performed by individuals	Minor	Forth 1981: 16
    Land-based gathering	Minor	Forth 1981: 14-17, 15
    Land-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Minor	Forth 1981: 16
    Agriculture / Horticulture	Principal (more important than any other source of food)	Forth 1981: 14

    Water-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Water-based gathering	Major	Forth 1981: 15-16
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Major	Forth 1981: 15-16
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by individuals	Major	Forth 1981: 15-16

    Commercial Activity

    Question	Response	Source
    Trade / wage labour as a source of food	Medium	Forth 1981: 14-17

• Post Contact History (1905-2014)
  • Religious History
    Conversion

    Question	Response	Source
    Was a foreign religion adopted through a top-down (those high in the social hierarchy converted first, followed by the general population) or a bottom-up (the general population converted first, followed by those high in the social hierarchy) process?	Primarily a top-down process, although inroads had already been made with the general population.
    Use of force in conversion	Medium (e.g force was threatened or implied during the conversion process; some communities agreed to conversion but others were forced to convert)	Keane 2007: 152-153
    Adoption of a world religion	Present and predominant (At one time or another during the post-contact period, at least 75% of the indigenous population practiced a world religion.)	Keane 2007: 154; Vel 2005: 91
    Resident missionary involvement in conversion process	Present, and from non-Austronesian societies (Resident foreign missionaries, at least one of whom was from a non-Austronesian society, played an important role in the conversion process.)	Forth 1981: 9

    Syncretic Movements

    Question	Response	Source
    Syncretic religious movements	Absent	Keane 2007

  • Secular History
    Demographic and Social Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Replacement-level immigration	Low (Replacement-level immigration occurred. The immigrant culture had a population size more than 10% of that of the indigenous culture at one time or another, but this figure never exceeded 50%.)
    Language shift	Medium (The indigenous language remained an important means of communication for the duration of the post-contact period, but at one time or another the indigenous population used a non-indigenous language to roughly the same extent.)
    Foreign education systems	High (At one time or another during the post-contact period over 75% of children received some at least a basic non-indigenous education.)
    Foreign government systems	Present, and of high importance (At one time or another during the post-contact period the culture was subject to a foreign government system that controlled most important decisions.)	Vel 2005: 83; Hoskins 1996: 239; Hoskins 2000: 612

    Economic Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Changes in means of subsistence	Medium (Principal and major means of subsistence have changed from their indigenous states (e.g. through gain or loss of major and / or principal means of subsistence), but at least one of the major or principal means of subsistance has persisted.)	Vel 2005: 82-83
    Exportation of goods to other cultures	Present and substantial (At one time or another during the post-contact period, exports were a primary focus of economic activity for over 10% of the population.)	2016

    Modern Infrastructure

    Question	Response	Source
    Vehicles and roads	Present and widely used (At one time or another during the post-contact period, motor vehicles were used by a substantial proportion of the population.)
    Air travel	Present, local only (At no time during the post-contact period did most members of the culture have access to international air travel, but at one time or another most members of the culture had access to domestic air travel.)	2016
    Sea port	Present (At one time or another during the post-contact period most members of the culture had access to a sea port.)	2016

    Loss of Autonomy

    Question	Response	Source
    Loss of autonomy during postcontact period	High (On at least one occasion during the post-contact period, the culture came under the political dominance of a foreign power, and this event resulted in considerable loss of autonomy.)	Vel 2005: 83; Hoskins 1996: 239; Hoskins 2000: 612
    Nature of loss of autonomy – voluntary vs. forced	Largely involuntary (autonomy was lost largely as a result of external force)	Hoskins 1996: 217; Hoskins 2000: 612