Bontok

• Traditional Culture (1903)
  • Isolation
    Isolation

    Question	Response	Source
    Pre-Austronesian population	Present: Clear evidence of human occupation prior to Austronesian settlement	Bellwood 1995: 109
    Christian influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Christian influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Christian societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Jenks 1905: 35
    Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Hindu or Buddhist societies at or prior to to the time focus in question.)	Cribb 2000: Map 2.23
    (Low) contact with other societies (SCCS v 787)	Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. (e.g. yearly or most years)	Jenks 1905: 35-6, 154, 157-158
    Islamic influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Islamic influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Islamic societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Cribb 2000: Map 2.23; Jenks 1905: 35-39
    Distance to closest landmass inhabited by a different culture (km)	0	Jenks 1905: Plate II
    Distance to nearest continent (km)	806.2	Calculator 2014; Bodner 1988: 308

  • Physical Environment
    Location

    Question	Response	Source
    Longitude of culture’s location (°)	121.1	2014; Jenks 1905: Plate III
    Latitude of culture’s location (°)	17.1	2014; Jenks 1905: Plate III

    Geographical Range of Culture

    Question	Response	Source
    Number of islands inhabited by culture	One	Bodner 1988: 308

    Features of Island with Largest Culture Population

    Question	Response	Source
    Island type (island with largest culture population or largest island if unknown)	Volcanic high island (an oceanic island of volcanic origin, e.g. Hawaii)	Yumul et al. 2009: 732-733
    Maximum elevation (meters)	2930	Luzon 2019
    Island Size (km²)	104688	Luzon 2019

  • Social Environment
    Social Environment

    Question	Response	Source
    Estimate of culture population size at relevant time focus	30000	of the Philippine Islands 1921: 900
    Importance of Matrilateral descent (V.2)	Medium (Matrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, but is not the most important form of descent.)	Lebar (eds.) 1975: 84
    Importance of Patrilateral descent (V.2)	High (Patrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, and is more important than any other form of descent.)	Lebar (eds.) 1975: 84, 85
    Polygamy (SCCS 861)	Monogamy preferred, but exceptional cases of polygyny	Jenks 1905: 59
    Estimated population of largest political community	1,000-9,999	Jenks 1905: 48-50
    Political Authority	Sublocal (encompasses a group larger than the household but smaller than the local community)	Jenks 1905: 48-50, 167-171

    Conflict

    Question	Response	Source
    (No) conflict (social or political) within the local community (SCCS v 767)	High (Conflict is frequent and often violent, but is not a pervasive aspect of daily life.)	Jenks 1905: 167-171
    (No) internal warfare (between communities of the same society) (SCCS v 773)	Frequent, occurring at least yearly	Jenks 1905: 172-183
    (No) external warfare (with other societies) (SCCS v 774)	Common, at least every five years	Jenks 1905: 35-39, 172-184

  • Subsistence and Economy
    Subsistence and Economy

    Question	Response	Source
    Metalworking	Present	Jenks 1905: 116-117, 125-128

    Land-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Animal husbandry as a source of food	Medium	Jenks 1905: 107-111, 140
    Land-based hunting performed by individuals	Medium	Jenks 1905: 84-85
    Land-based gathering	Medium	Jenks 1905: 81, 143
    Land-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Medium	Jenks 1905: 81-83
    Agriculture / Horticulture	Principal (more important than any other source of food)	Jenks 1905: 88-89

    Water-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Water-based gathering	Major	Jenks 1905: 87, 141-142
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Major	Jenks 1905: 85-86, 141
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by individuals	Major	Jenks 1905: 85-86

    Commercial Activity

    Question	Response	Source
    Trade / wage labour as a source of food	Major	Jenks 1905: 136-137, 154-156

• Post Contact History (1903-2014)
  • Religious History
    Conversion

    Question	Response	Source
    Use of force in conversion	Low (most communities adopted the new religion either voluntarily or due to pressure from other communities of the same culture)	Keesing 1949: 579; McKay 2006: 296
    Adoption of a world religion	Present and predominant (At one time or another during the post-contact period, at least 75% of the indigenous population practiced a world religion.)	McKay 2006: 296
    Resident missionary involvement in conversion process	Present, and from non-Austronesian societies (Resident foreign missionaries, at least one of whom was from a non-Austronesian society, played an important role in the conversion process.)	McKay 2006: 296; Howell 2009: 253-254

    Syncretic Movements

    Question	Response	Source
    Syncretic religious movements	Absent	Howell 2009

  • Secular History
    Demographic and Social Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Replacement-level immigration	Absent (Replacement-level immigration did not occur – an immigrant culture was never present in the area, or was present but had a population size less than 10% of that of the indigenous culture.)	2014; Carling 2004: 184
    Language shift	Medium (The indigenous language remained an important means of communication for the duration of the post-contact period, but at one time or another the indigenous population used a non-indigenous language to roughly the same extent.)	Eberhard et al. (eds.) 2020
    Foreign education systems	High (At one time or another during the post-contact period over 75% of children received some at least a basic non-indigenous education.)	Reid 2005: 6-
    Foreign government systems	Present, and of high importance (At one time or another during the post-contact period the culture was subject to a foreign government system that controlled most important decisions.)	Carling 2004: 186-187

    Economic Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Changes in means of subsistence	Low (Principal and major means of subsistence have not changed from their indigenous states.)	Prill-Brett 2004: 6
    Exportation of goods to other cultures	Present but minor (At one time or another exports were part of the local economy, but were never a primary focus of economic activity for more than 10% of the population .)	Prill-Brett 2004: 6

    Modern Infrastructure

    Question	Response	Source
    Sea port	Absent (At no time during the post-contact period did most members of the culture have access to a sea port.)

    Loss of Autonomy

    Question	Response	Source
    Loss of autonomy during postcontact period	High (On at least one occasion during the post-contact period, the culture came under the political dominance of a foreign power, and this event resulted in considerable loss of autonomy.)	Jenks 1905: 35-39; Prill-Brett 2004: 5-6; Carling 2004: 186-187
    Nature of loss of autonomy – voluntary vs. forced	Partly voluntary (e.g. Autonomy was ceded voluntarily but under duress; some communities ceded their autonomy voluntarily but others were forced to do so by an foreign power.)	Prill-Brett 2004: 5; Carling 2004: 186-187