Biak

• Traditional Culture (1911)
  • Isolation
    Isolation

    Question	Response	Source
    Pre-Austronesian population	Present: Clear evidence of human occupation prior to Austronesian settlement	F. and Allen 2004: 836; Bellwood 1995: 109
    Christian influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Christian influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Christian societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Kamma 1972: 9, 39-40, 42-43
    Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Hindu or Buddhist societies at or prior to to the time focus in question.)	Cribb 2000: Map 2.21; Kamma 1972: 40-41
    (Low) contact with other societies (SCCS v 787)	Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. (e.g. yearly or most years)	Kamma 1972: 8-9, 41
    Islamic influence on supernatural belief	Evidence of influence (Evidence of Islamic influence on supernatural belief.)	Rutherford 2003: 16-17; Kamma 1972: 214
    Distance to closest landmass inhabited by a different culture (km)	42.5	Calculator 2014; of Eastern Papua). 2014
    Distance to nearest continent (km)	1174	Calculator 2014; of Eastern Papua). 2014

  • Physical Environment
    Location

    Question	Response	Source
    Longitude of culture’s location (°)	136	2014; Kamma 1972: 5
    Latitude of culture’s location (°)	-1	2014; Kamma 1972: 5

    Geographical Range of Culture

    Question	Response	Source
    Number of islands inhabited by culture	Four or more	Kamma 1972: 5, 8

    Features of Island with Largest Culture Population

    Question	Response	Source
    Island type (island with largest culture population or largest island if unknown)	Atoll (an oceanic low island of coral origin, e.g. Ulithi)	Kamma 1972: 5
    Maximum elevation (meters)	762	Kamma 1972: 6
    Island Size (km²)	2395.7	Kamma 1972: 5

  • Social Environment
    Social Environment

    Question	Response	Source
    Importance of Matrilateral descent (V.2)	Low (Matrilateral descent plays little or no role in determining social status and / or group membership.)	Van der Kroef 1957: 428-429
    Importance of Patrilateral descent (V.2)	High (Patrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, and is more important than any other form of descent.)	Van der Kroef 1957: 428-429
    Estimated population of largest political community	100-999	Kamma 1972: 8, 10
    Political Authority	Local (encompasses the local community and / or multiple sublocal groups)	Galis 1970: 2; Kamma 1972: 11-14

    Conflict

    Question	Response	Source
    (No) conflict (social or political) within the local community (SCCS v 767)	Endemic (Conflict is frequent, is often violent, and is a pervasive aspect of daily life, e.g. feuding).	Rutherford 1998: 77-88; Kamma 1972: 10
    (No) internal warfare (between communities of the same society) (SCCS v 773)	Frequent, occurring at least yearly	Rutherford 2003: 31
    (No) external warfare (with other societies) (SCCS v 774)	Frequent, occurring at least yearly	Rutherford 2003: 31; Kamma 1972: 8-9, 41

  • Subsistence and Economy
    Subsistence and Economy

    Question	Response	Source
    Metalworking	Present	Kamma 1972: 8-9

    Land-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Animal husbandry as a source of food	Minor	Kamma 1972: 7
    Land-based hunting performed by individuals	Absent	Kamma 1972: 2
    Land-based gathering	Medium	Galis 1970: 2
    Land-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Absent	Kamma 1972: 2
    Agriculture / Horticulture	Major (one of the most important sources of food)	Van der Kroef 1957: 429; Kamma 1972: 6-7

    Water-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Water-based gathering	Major	Kamma 1972: 7
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Major	Van der Kroef 1957: 429; Kamma 1972: 7
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by individuals	Major	Van der Kroef 1957: 429; Kamma 1972: 7

    Commercial Activity

    Question	Response	Source
    Trade / wage labour as a source of food	Principal	Galis 1970: 1; Kamma 1972: 5-6

• Post Contact History (1911-2014)
  • Religious History
    Conversion

    Question	Response	Source
    Was a foreign religion adopted through a top-down (those high in the social hierarchy converted first, followed by the general population) or a bottom-up (the general population converted first, followed by those high in the social hierarchy) process?	Primarily a top-down process, although inroads had already been made with the general population.
    Use of force in conversion	Low (most communities adopted the new religion either voluntarily or due to pressure from other communities of the same culture)	Kamma 1972: 225
    Adoption of a world religion	Present and predominant (At one time or another during the post-contact period, at least 75% of the indigenous population practiced a world religion.)	Rutherford 2003: 6
    Resident missionary involvement in conversion process	Present, and from non-Austronesian societies (Resident foreign missionaries, at least one of whom was from a non-Austronesian society, played an important role in the conversion process.)	Rutherford 2003: 185-186

    Syncretic Movements

    Question	Response	Source
    Syncretic religious movements	Present, but did not survive to the present-day	Rutherford 2003: 125; Kamma 1972; Rutherford 2006: 120-121

  • Secular History
    Demographic and Social Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Replacement-level immigration	Medium (Replacement-level immigration occurred. The immigrant culture had a population size more than 50% of that of the indigenous population at one time or another, but this figure never exceeded 100%.)	Rutherford 2003: 5-6
    Language shift	Medium (The indigenous language remained an important means of communication for the duration of the post-contact period, but at one time or another the indigenous population used a non-indigenous language to roughly the same extent.)	Rutherford 2000: 316, 318-319
    Foreign education systems	High (At one time or another during the post-contact period over 75% of children received some at least a basic non-indigenous education.)	Rutherford 2000: 319
    Foreign government systems	Present, and of high importance (At one time or another during the post-contact period the culture was subject to a foreign government system that controlled most important decisions.)	Kamma 1972: 225

    Economic Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Changes in means of subsistence	Medium (Principal and major means of subsistence have changed from their indigenous states (e.g. through gain or loss of major and / or principal means of subsistence), but at least one of the major or principal means of subsistance has persisted.)	Rutherford 2000: 316
    Exportation of goods to other cultures	Present and substantial (At one time or another during the post-contact period, exports were a primary focus of economic activity for over 10% of the population.)	Rutherford 2003: 6-7; Rutherford 2000: 316

    Modern Infrastructure

    Question	Response	Source
    Vehicles and roads	Present and widely used (At one time or another during the post-contact period, motor vehicles were used by a substantial proportion of the population.)	Rutherford 2003: 6, 204-205
    Air travel	Present and long-distance (At one time or another, most members of the culture had access to international air travel.)	Rutherford 2003: 6
    Sea port	Present (At one time or another during the post-contact period most members of the culture had access to a sea port.)	Rutherford 2003: 6

    Loss of Autonomy

    Question	Response	Source
    Loss of autonomy during postcontact period	High (On at least one occasion during the post-contact period, the culture came under the political dominance of a foreign power, and this event resulted in considerable loss of autonomy.)	Kamma 1972: 215-221, 225
    Nature of loss of autonomy – voluntary vs. forced	Largely involuntary (autonomy was lost largely as a result of external force)	Van der Kroef 1957: 436; Rutherford 2003: 7; Kamma 1972: 220-221