Kwaio

• Traditional Culture (1890)
  • Isolation
    Isolation

    Question	Response	Source
    Pre-Austronesian population	Present: Clear evidence of human occupation prior to Austronesian settlement	Bellwood 1995: 109
    Christian influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence but in a region where contact is likely (No evidence of Christian influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (or is likely to have had) contact with Christian societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Keesing 1982: 22
    Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Hindu or Buddhist societies at or prior to to the time focus in question.)	Cribb 2000: Map 2.21
    (Low) contact with other societies (SCCS v 787)	Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. (e.g. yearly or most years)	Keesing 1982: 20
    Islamic influence on supernatural belief	No evidence of influence and not in region of known contact (No evidence of Islamic influence on supernatural belief, and culture is unlikely to have had contact with Islamic societies at or prior to the time focus in question.)	Cribb 2000: Map 2.23
    Distance to closest landmass inhabited by a different culture (km)	0	Keesing 1982: 13
    Distance to nearest continent (km)	1790	Calculator 2014; Keesing 1982: 13

  • Physical Environment
    Location

    Question	Response	Source
    Longitude of culture’s location (°)	160.9	2014; Keesing 1982: 13, 15
    Latitude of culture’s location (°)	-9	2014; Keesing 1982: 13, 15

    Geographical Range of Culture

    Question	Response	Source
    Number of islands inhabited by culture	One	Keesing 1982: 13, 15

    Features of Island with Largest Culture Population

    Question	Response	Source
    Island type (island with largest culture population or largest island if unknown)	Volcanic high island (an oceanic island of volcanic origin, e.g. Hawaii)	2019
    Maximum elevation (meters)	1438	2019
    Island Size (km²)	4200	Moore 2007: 214

  • Social Environment
    Social Environment

    Question	Response	Source
    Estimate of culture population size at relevant time focus	7500	Keesing 1982: 13
    Importance of Matrilateral descent (V.2)	Medium (Matrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, but is not the most important form of descent.)	Keesing 1991: 161
    Importance of Patrilateral descent (V.2)	High (Patrilateral descent plays an important role in determining social status and / or group membership, and is more important than any other form of descent.)	Keesing 1991: 161
    Polygamy (SCCS 861)	Monogamy preferred, but exceptional cases of polygyny	Keesing 1991: 162
    Marital residence (SCCS 69)	Patrilocal or virilocal - with husband's kin	Keesing 1991: 161-162
    Kinship system (if applicable)	Hawaiian	Keesing 1991: 162
    Estimated population of largest political community	99 or fewer	Keesing 1982: 10, 17
    Political Authority	Absent, or restricted to a group no larger than the household	Keesing 1982: 10-11, 206-207; Keesing 1985

    Conflict

    Question	Response	Source
    (No) conflict (social or political) within the local community (SCCS v 767)	Endemic (Conflict is frequent, is often violent, and is a pervasive aspect of daily life, e.g. feuding).	Keesing 1982: 18-19, 225-227
    (No) internal warfare (between communities of the same society) (SCCS v 773)	Common, at least every five years	Keesing 1982: 22
    (No) external warfare (with other societies) (SCCS v 774)	Rare or never	Keesing 1982: 13-20

  • Subsistence and Economy
    Land-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Animal husbandry as a source of food	Medium	Keesing 1982: 14, 9-82
    Land-based hunting performed by individuals	Minor	Keesing 1982: 14
    Land-based gathering	Minor	Keesing 1982: 13-14
    Land-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Minor	Keesing 1982: 14
    Agriculture / Horticulture	Principal (more important than any other source of food)	Keesing 1982: 13-14

    Water-based means of subsistence

    Question	Response	Source
    Water-based gathering	Minor	Keesing 1982: 14
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by one or more groups	Minor	Keesing 1982: 14
    Fishing and water-based hunting performed by individuals	Minor	Keesing 1982: 14

    Commercial Activity

    Question	Response	Source
    Trade / wage labour as a source of food	Minor	Keesing 1982: 14

• Post Contact History (1890-2014)
  • Religious History
    Conversion

    Question	Response	Source
    Was a foreign religion adopted through a top-down (those high in the social hierarchy converted first, followed by the general population) or a bottom-up (the general population converted first, followed by those high in the social hierarchy) process?	Mixed / Neither (e.g. Both high-status individuals and the general population converted at the same time, or the religion was adopted through a mixture of top-down and bottom-up processes.)	Keesing 1982: 234
    Use of force in conversion	Medium (e.g force was threatened or implied during the conversion process; some communities agreed to conversion but others were forced to convert)	Keesing 1982: 23-24, 234
    Adoption of a world religion	Present and major (At one time or another during the post-contact period more than 25% of the indigenous population practiced a world religion, but this figure never exceeded 75%.)	Keesing 1967: 84-89; McLaren et al. 2009: S125
    Resident missionary involvement in conversion process	Present, and from non-Austronesian societies (Resident foreign missionaries, at least one of whom was from a non-Austronesian society, played an important role in the conversion process.)	Keesing 1982: 232-233

    Syncretic Movements

    Question	Response	Source
    Syncretic religious movements	Present, but did not survive to the present-day	Keesing 1982: 24-26; McLaren et al. 2009: S125

  • Secular History
    Demographic and Social Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Replacement-level immigration	Absent (Replacement-level immigration did not occur – an immigrant culture was never present in the area, or was present but had a population size less than 10% of that of the indigenous culture.)	Keesing 1982: 26-29; McLaren et al. 2009: S125
    Foreign education systems	Medium (At one time or another during the post-contact period over 25% of indigenous children received at least a basic non-indigenous education, but this figure never exceeded 75%.)
    Foreign government systems	Present, and of high importance (At one time or another during the post-contact period the culture was subject to a foreign government system that controlled most important decisions.)	Keesing 1982: 28-29

    Economic Changes

    Question	Response	Source
    Changes in means of subsistence	Medium (Principal and major means of subsistence have changed from their indigenous states (e.g. through gain or loss of major and / or principal means of subsistence), but at least one of the major or principal means of subsistance has persisted.)	Keesing 1982: 24; Government 2001: 20-22
    Exportation of goods to other cultures	Present and substantial (At one time or another during the post-contact period, exports were a primary focus of economic activity for over 10% of the population.)	Keesing 1982: 24

    Modern Infrastructure

    Question	Response	Source
    Vehicles and roads	Present but rarely used (At no time during the post-contact period were motor vehicles used by a substantial portion of the population, but at one time or another most members of population had access to roads suitable for motor vehicles.)	McLaren et al. 2009: S126
    Air travel	Present, local only (At no time during the post-contact period did most members of the culture have access to international air travel, but at one time or another most members of the culture had access to domestic air travel.)	Government 2001: 18-19
    Sea port	Absent (At no time during the post-contact period did most members of the culture have access to a sea port.)	Government 2001: 19

    Loss of Autonomy

    Question	Response	Source
    Loss of autonomy during postcontact period	High (On at least one occasion during the post-contact period, the culture came under the political dominance of a foreign power, and this event resulted in considerable loss of autonomy.)	Keesing 1982: 23-26, 28-29
    Nature of loss of autonomy – voluntary vs. forced	Largely involuntary (autonomy was lost largely as a result of external force)	Keesing 1982: 23-24